1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Terms and scope 1
1.2 Application areas 5
1.3 Growing importance of embedded systems 8
1.4 Structure of this book 9
2. SPECIFICATIONS 13
2.1 Requirements 13
2.2 Models of computation 16
2.3 StateCharts 18
2.3.1 Modeling of hierarchy 19
2.3.2 Timers 23
2.3.3 Edge labels and StateCharts semantics 24
2.3.4 Evaluation and extensions 26
2.4 General language characteristics 27
2.4.1 Synchronous and asynchronous languages 27
2.4.2 Process concepts 28
2.4.3 Synchronization and communication 28
2.4.4 Specifying timing 29
2.4.5 Using non-standard I/O devices 30
2.5 SDL 30
2.6 Petri nets 36
2.6.1 Introduction 36
2.6.2 Condition/event nets 40
2.6.3 Place/transition nets 40
2.6.4 Predicate/transition nets 42
2.6.5 Evaluation 44
2.7 Message Sequence Charts 44
2.8 UML 45
2.9 Process networks 50
2.9.1 Task graphs 50
2.9.2 Asynchronous message passing 53
2.9.3 Synchronous message passing 55
2.10 Java 58
2.11 VHDL 59
2.11.1 Introduction 59
2.11.2 Entities and architectures 60
2.11.3 Multi-valued logic and IEEE 1164 62
2.11.4 VHDL processes and simulation semantics 69
2.12 SystemC 73
2.13 Verilog and SystemVerilog 75
2.14 SpecC 76
2.15 Additional languages 77
2.16 Levels of hardware modeling 79
2.17 Language comparison 82
2.18 Dependability requirements 83
3. EMBEDDED SYSTEM HARDWARE 87
3.1 Introduction 87
3.2 Input 88
3.2.1 Sensors 88
3.2.2 Sample-and-hold circuits 90
3.2.3 A/D-converters 91
3.3 Communication 93
3.3.1 Requirements 94
3.3.2 Electrical robustness 95
3.3.3 Guaranteeing real-time behavior 96
3.3.4 Examples 97
3.4 Processing Units 98
3.4.1 Overview 98
3.4.2 Application-Specific Circuits (ASICs) 100
3.4.3 Processors 100
3.4.4 Reconfigurable Logic 115
3.5 Memories 118
3.6 Output 120
3.6.1 D/A-converters 121
3.6.2 Actuators 122
4. EMBEDDED OPERATING SYSTEMS,
MIDDLEWARE, AND SCHEDULING 125
4.1 Prediction of execution times 126
4.2 Scheduling in real-time systems 127
4.2.1 Classification of scheduling algorithms 128
4.2.2 Aperiodic scheduling 131
4.2.3 Periodic scheduling 135
4.2.4 Resource access protocols 140
4.3 Embedded operating systems 143
4.3.1 General requirements 143
4.3.2 Real-time operating systems 144
4.4 Middleware 148
4.4.1 Real-time data bases 148
4.4.2 Access to remote objects 149
5. IMPLEMENTING EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:
HARDWARE/SOFTWARE CODESIGN 151
5.1 Task level concurrency management 153
5.2 High-level optimizations 157
5.2.1 Floating-point to fixed-point conversion 157
5.2.2 Simple loop transformations 159
5.2.3 Loop tiling/blocking 160
5.2.4 Loop splitting 163
5.2.5 Array folding 165
5.3 Hardware/software partitioning 167
5.3.1 Introduction 167
5.3.2 COOL 168
5.4 Compilers for embedded systems 177
5.4.1 Introduction 177
5.4.2 Energy-aware compilation 178
5.4.3 Compilation for digital signal processors 181
5.4.4 Compilation for multimedia processors 184
5.4.5 Compilation for VLIW processors 184
5.4.6 Compilation for network processors 185
5.4.7Compiler generation, retargetable compiler
and sdesign space exploration 185
5.5 Voltage Scaling and Power Managementdesign 186
5.5.1 Dynamic Voltage Scaling 186
5.5.2 Dynamic power management (DPM) 189
5.6 Actual design flows and tools 190
5.6.1 SpecC methodology 190
5.6.2 IMEC tool flow 191
5.6.3 The COSYMA design flow 194
5.6.4 Ptolemy II 195
5.6.5 The OCTOPUS design flow 196
6. VALIDATION 199
6.1 Introduction 199
6.2 Simulation 200
6.3 Rapid Prototyping and Emulation 201
6.4 Test 201
6.4.1 Scope 201
6.4.2 Design for testability 202
6.4.3 Self-test programs 205
6.5 Fault simulation 206
6.6 Fault injection 207
6.7 Risk- and dependability analysis 207
6.8 Formal Verification 209
References 212
About the author 227
List of Figures 229
Index 236